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Clegg, M. We found that both infusions increased the secretion of CCK, although CCK secretion was more potently stimulated after duodenal compared with ileal fat infusion. We excluded the possibility that incorrect positioning of the catheter affected CCK release. Both during the positioning of the catheter and on each test day at the start and end of the procedure, the position of the catheter was checked fluoroscopically to ascertain placement of the tip of the catheter in the ileum.
A full h period was used for positioning of the catheter. Subjects were routinely instructed to assist passage and aboral progression of the catheter at home.
Furthermore, in 3 cases, contrast fluid was used to ascertain the position of the catheter. After infusion of the contrast fluid, the contrast appeared in the colon within a few minutes. Triacylglycerols are hydrolyzed in the proximal gastrointestinal tract to fatty acids and monoacylglycerols Hydrolysis is necessary to induce the effects of fat on gastrointestinal function, hormone release, and satiety 25 , Fatty acids are incorporated in micelles and transported to the surface of epithelial cells 24 , where sensing and subsequent absorption of fatty acids occur As the ease of micelle formation increases with the degree of fat unsaturation 28 , unsaturated fatty acids are more readily available for sensing and absorption, which leads to increased satiety and hormone release Jones et al 29 showed that significantly more stearic acid saturated than oleic acid unsaturated was found in stool after oral ingestion of labeled fatty acids.
This was probably due to an increased ability of saturated fatty acids to interact with calcium, which resulted in the formation of insoluble calcium-fatty acid soaps and increased fecal excretion Both mechanisms micelle formation, calcium binding may be involved in the differences in satiety and CCK release observed in our study. However, recent studies showed that the metabolization of saturated and unsaturated fats occurs roughly at the same rate, and differences in plasma peaks are caused more by the sn -structure than by the degree of saturation or unsaturation.
In the present study, all fat emulsions induced a significant increase in PYY secretion compared with the saline infusion, with no differences between the fat emulsions. Infusion of CCK reduces food intake during a meal The reduction in hunger observed after fat infusion can be abolished by a CCK receptor antagonist 17 , which points to a role for CCK in the physiologic regulation of eating behavior. Batterham et al 31 , 32 showed that infusion of PYY reduced food intake in both animals and humans.
Whether PYY is involved in the physiologic regulation of food intake is still debatable In animals, this debate has been resolved. Whereas many studies failed to confirm the results of Batterham et al 33 , adequate habituation and acclimatization of animals proved to be essential in these studies, and PYY is considered to be a physiologic satiety signal We previously performed a study in human subjects to examine whether the satiating effect of ileal brake activation was mediated by PYY.
At plasma PYY concentrations that were similar after intravenous PYY infusion and after ileal fat infusion, the effects on satiety after the intestinal fat infusion were much more pronounced We concluded that the satiating effect of the ileal brake is not solely mediated by PYY. From the results of the current study, and from previous studies 36 , we hypothesize that a role for CCK in ileal brake—mediated satiety should be considered.
However, other peptides may also be involved. Release of glucagon-like peptide-1, a gut peptide released from L cells that predominate in the distal small intestine and colon has been shown to increase after a monounsaturated fat—rich meal compared with a saturated fat—rich meal 37 , and a reduction in both hunger and food intake was shown after glucagon-like peptide-1 infusion 1.
In animals, Kalogeris et al 38 showed that, compared with saturated fatty acids, unsaturated fatty acids significantly increased the lymphatic outflow of apolipoprotein A-IV—a chylomicron particle that has been shown to reduce food intake in rats In conclusion, when infused into the ileum, triacylglycerol with unsaturated fatty acids increases satiety compared with saline, whereas triacylglycerol with saturated fatty acids does not.
All of the authors participated in a critical review and in the final approval of the manuscript. None of the authors had a personal or financial conflict of interest.
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Calcium supplementation of chocolate: effect on cocoa butter digestibility and blood lipids in humans. Am J Clin Nutr ; 73 : — Gut hormone PYY physiologically inhibits food intake. When a person's levels are too high or low, they have dyslipidemia. It can…. Because the keto diet involves limiting the intake of carbohydrates, it can help reduce cholesterol levels.
However, the diet is not suitable for…. Crestor belongs to a class of drugs known as statins. Used with a healthful, low-cholesterol diet and exercise, it can help achieve healthy…. How can diet help lower triglyceride levels? Definition Healthy levels Foods to lower triglycerides Example meal plan Other options Summary Triglycerides are a type of fat present in the blood.
What are triglycerides? Healthy levels of triglycerides. Examples of foods to lower triglycerides. Example meal plan. Option 1 Option 2 Option 3 Breakfast salmon, a poached egg , and watercress on a slice of whole grain rye bread a buckwheat pancake with blueberries and low fat yogurt porridge with low fat milk or plant milk, topped with pumpkin seeds and berries Lunch avocado , spinach , tomato, and hummus salad lentil and vegetable soup with oatcakes sardines on whole grain toast with a portion of salad greens Dinner chicken and vegetable stir-fry with brown rice butternut squash and tofu curry served with cauliflower rice vegetable and bean chili served with steamed kale Snack a banana and some almonds a boiled egg and whole grain pita slices celery sticks and nut butter.
Other options to lower triglycerides. Latest news Scientists identify new cause of vascular injury in type 2 diabetes. Adolescent depression: Could school screening help? Related Coverage. Ways to lower high triglycerides. Medically reviewed by Gerhard Whitworth, RN.
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